Functional Path Training

Thoughts on Training Agility for Soccer (Guest Post by Warren Young)

This is a post by Warren Young, PhD,([email protected] ) Coordinator of Master of Strength & Conditioning, Federation University Australia, Ballarat, Australia. In my opinion Warren and his colleagues have done more to define agility and its parameters from a research perspective than anyone I know. Warren is an applied scientist who has always been open to dialog with coaches. A little-known fact is that Warren was one of the developers of the Reactive Strength Index. This post although directed to soccer, transcends soccer.

Introduction

After studying and writing about agility in sport for several years, my views have evolved. Although I have presented my own research and research of others in scientific and coaching journals, the following discussion allows for a more complete story about how I see training agility to enhance sports performance. This discussion especially applies to invasion sports, such as football codes, and my personal experience has mainly been in Australian football (AF). However, I believe this discussion applies equally as well to soccer, because both AF and soccer can both be described as “360 degree” sports, where players and the ball can move in any direction. I have decided to use examples here that are applied to soccer.

Agility in soccer

Agility seems to be a rather unique quality in soccer, and is not an easily defined skill like vertical jumping or a linear sprinting. In fact, I’m not even sure if agility should be thought of as a physical quality because it is a complex open skill. But more about that later.

Rather than debating what the definition of agility is, I think the best way to understand it is to view it in the context of a game. Agility in soccer depends on whether it is performed by the attacker in possession of the ball, or if it is performed by a defender. Many agility scenarios come down to a 1-on-1 contest, where an attacker aims to evade an opponent to progress down field, or to create time and space from opponents to pass the ball to a team mate in a more advantageous position. The aim for the defender is to move effectively to either tackle and win possession, or just to create enough pressure to produce a turnover. So agility is about “effective movement” to achieve an outcome. Effective agility is not always about how fast a player can move in multiple directions. In fact, if a defender charges at the attacker as fast as possible, this “over-commitment” makes the defender more susceptible to evasion by the attacker. To achieve a successful outcome, the movement strategy must be “measured”. A defender may approach the attacker cautiously and apply pressure simply by corralling the attacker so he or she can’t evade or get into space.

The movement strategies of both players in the contest are influenced by factors such as the position of other attacking and defending players, as well as their location in relation to the boundaries of the field. Therefore, the attacker and defender must pay attention to their immediate surrounds, and this contributes to the cognitive demand of their agility skill.

An attacker who wants to evade an opponent will constantly monitor the defenders movements to determine if he or she can be successfully deceived. If the defender shifts his or her body weight in one direction, the attacker may take advantage of this momentum to cut to the opposite direction. So the eventual evasive strategy is a response to stimuli provided by the defender. Conversely, the defender watches the attacker’s body to try to pick up clues about which way he or she will turn. To complicate the decision-making process, the defender also has to perceive the position of surrounding players in case the attacker attempts to quickly pass the ball. Therefore, the options that could play out are many and varied, and adds to the decision-making demands of the agility scenario for all players in the contest.

It is important to recognise that in soccer, each agility scenario is likely to be unique. The relative positions of the players in the contest, the speed and angle at which they are moving, and the movements of all the players around them will never be exactly the same. If a lateral change of direction is performed by an attacker or defender, the angle of the cut will be somewhat different in each agility scenario.

A Strength & Conditioning approach to agility

Returning to the question of whether agility is a physical quality or a sport skill, the preceding discussion suggests agility should be viewed as an open skill; that is, a skill that is influenced by many unpredictable factors. As such, it is not always clear who is responsible for developing agility in a team. Is it the responsibility of the football coaches who teach other sport skills, or is it the strength & conditioning (S&C) coaches who should integrate agility training into their speed program? The approach usually taken by S&C coaches is to break a skill down into component parts, and create exercises to enhance the movement. An example is the use of Olympic lifts or jump squats to develop power in a “triple extension” (hip, knee and ankle extension), with the intention of enhancing sprint or jump performance. If this reductionist approach is used to train agility, it is likely for the S&C coach to focus on the change-of-direction movement in isolation. Examples include practising deceleration or stopping hard, side-stepping, back pedalling, and shuffling. Often these pre-planned movements are directed by the use of obstacles such as cones, poles and ladders. These types of drills are now typically described as “change-of-direction speed” (CODS) rather than agility. The isolation of COD movements from agility may have been encouraged by many authors who refer to a model of agility that I published in 2002 (11). This model was an attempt to identify the various factors that contribute to agility performance, and it indicated that agility was determined by two main factors: the COD movement and a cognitive component. After considering more recent research, I have rejected this part of the model and revised it in 2015 (9) to remove the reference to CODS. Instead, agility is described as being determined by three components; technical (movement skill), physical (eg. strength qualities), and cognitive (eg. decision-making). The reason that CODS should not be seen as a component of agility, but rather as a separate skill, is because when a stimulus is included to a COD task, agility technique changes (3,7). This means that a change-of-direction movement and cognitive factors are dependent on each other, and should not be isolated. So I believe that we should try to avoid training and testing CODS in isolation, especially when the movements are directed by obstacles that do not exist on the football field.

 

 

Limited transfer from change-of-direction drills

Here are some reasons why I believe that CODS training has limited transfer to agility performance on the competition field:

1. Decision-making is totally ignored. Athletes need to anticipate opponents movements to have a fast response. This means the player can predict the opponent’s movement before it occurs, and gives the player a split-second jump on his opponent. It is known that superior skill is associated with faster and more accurate reactions (8). Anticipatory skill can only be developed by practising reacting to sport-specific agility scenarios, because athletes learn to select relevant cues from opponent’s actions that provide information about their subsequent movement (10). Anticipatory skill can not be developed by reacting to a generic stimulus, such as a flashing light. All that can be gained from this is an improvement in reaction time, which has been shown in soccer research not to relate to agility skill (2).
2. Pre-planned movements do not allow for problem solving and creativity. The ability of an attacker to “get out of trouble” when surrounded by multiple opponents or to move in such a way to find space to make a shot on goal involves problem solving and creativity. The creativity of movement is one of the characteristics that make Brazilian soccer players so exciting to watch. A stereotyped well-rehearsed COD movement is unlikely to be used in games, so players need to be exposed to a wide variety of agility scenarios to have a large repertoire of movement responses to draw from.
3. The training principle of specificity is constantly demonstrated every time we vary a training exercise. Here’s an example. I was recently doing close grip push-ups to emphasise the function of the triceps during elbow extension. Then I did a low volume session involving dips, which also involve the elbow extensors. The next day I experience soreness in the triceps, which must have been caused by the recruitment of different motor units/fibers in the triceps muscle group. This example illustrates that subtle changes to a movement produces a different neuromuscular recruitment pattern. Therefore, if pre-planned COD drills are rehearsed ad nauseam, the athlete will not be adequately prepared for the vast variability of movements that can be executed in competitive play.  
4. Studies have shown no meaningful gains in sport-specific agility tests following CODS training in either soccer (1) or Australian football (12).

Recommended ways to train agility in soccer

So how should agility be trained? There are two approaches that follow from the previous discussion. The first is training with 1-on-1 contests that are designed to replicate agility scenarios in games. Essentially, the attacker should attempt to beat a defender by dribbling the ball to a designated position. At the same time, the defender moves in response, and attempts to apply pressure or tackle to dispossess the attacker. To allow each player to experience game-like set-ups, each scenario should begin differently to create variability. Players should start in different positions within a designated space so that they approach each other at different speeds, and view each other’s bodies and movements from varied perspectives. The speed at which the players move, and the space in which they have to move, will influence their decision-making and movement strategies. Players should perform multiple trials in the roles of both attacker and defender because the agility demands are different. For example, an attacker may perform deceptive actions while watching the defender to see if he “buys a fake”, and a defender will watch the attacker and try to anticipate or react to a fake. Players will learn organically and implicitly what cues to focus their attention on. There is no need to give coaching instructions to explicitly state where the player should look and how to react. Implicit learning of motors skills has been shown to be effective (12), and more robust under pressure (4,5,6).

A second approach to developing agility skill is with small-sided games (SSG). One advantage of SSG (eg. 3 v 3 on a reduced sized pitch) is that with less players, there is more involvement in contests for each player, compared to full competition games. The greater frequency of agility events in SSG provides a more powerful training stimulus than a regular game. Another advantage of SSG is that they provide variability and unpredictability of agility scenarios. Each player is exposed to the movement styles and strategies of multiple opponents, and the position and movement of all players on the pitch must be considered in agility decision-making. Therefore, SSG are the only way to replicate the complex cognitive demands of competition. Research has also demonstrated that SSG are effective for developing sport specific agility in elite junior soccer (1) and Australian football (12) players.

I’m sure my views on this subject will continue to evolve, but hopefully this will spark some further discussion.

References

1. Chaouachi, A, Chtara, M, Hammami, R, Chtara, H, Turki, O, and Castagna, C. Multidirectional sprints and small-sided games training effect on agility and change of direction abilities in youth soccer. J Strength Cond Res 28(11): 3121–3127, 2014
2. Helsen, WF, Starkes, JL. A multidimensional approach to skilled perception and performance in sport. Appl Cogn Psychol 13: 1–27, 1999.
3. Houck, JR, Duncan, A, De Haven, KE. Comparison of frontal plane trunk kinematics and hip and knee moments during anticipated and unanticipated walking and side step cutting tasks. Gait & Posture 24: 314–322, 2006.
4. Liao, CM, Masters, RSW. Analogy learning: A means to implicit motor learning J Sports Sci, 19: 307-319, 2001.
5. Maxwell, JP, Masters, RSW, Eves, FF. From novice to no knowhow: A longitudinal study of implicit motor learning, J Sports Sci 18: 111-120, 2000.
6. Poolton, JM, Masters, RSW, Maxwell, JP. Passing thoughts on the evolutionary stability of implicit motor behaviour: Performance retention under physiological fatigue. Consciousness Cog 16, 456–468: 2007.
7. Wheeler, KW  Sayers, Modification of agility running technique in reaction to a defender in rugby union. J Sports Sci Med 9(3): 445–451, 2010.
8. Williams, AM, Davids, K. Visual search strategy, selective attention, and expertise in soccer. Res Quart Exer Sport 69: 111-128, 1998.
9. Young, WB, Dawson, B, Henry, GJ. Agility and change-of-direction speed are independent skills: implications for training for agility in invasion sports. Int J Sports Sci & Coach 10(1): 159-169, 2015.
10. Young, W, Farrow, D. The importance of a sport-specific stimulus for training agility. Streng Condit J 35: 39-43, 2013.
11. Young, W, James, R, Montgomery, I. Is muscle power related to running speed with changes of direction? J Sports Med  Phys Fit  42: 282-288, 2002.
12. Young, W, Rogers, N. Effects of small-sided game and change-of-direction training on reactive agility and change-of-direction speed. J Sports Sci 32(4): 307-314, 2014.

Making Connections

Body is a complex adaptive system, not a bio-machine or bio-computer. Given that the body is a kinetic chain and all systems of the body work synergistically to produce efficient movement then training is all about connections. How can we better link, sync and coordinate to enhance efficient movement. Biomechanically it helps to think toe nails to finger nails to finger nails, everything is connected. The better and more effective the training the more effective the connections between body parts and the various systems of the body. In theory and for mental convenience we can isolate but that is not the way the body works in real life. As coaches, we need to consciously make connections to make training more effective and efficient. We need to understand that that although we may target a particular system i.e. neural, cardio vascular, endocrine hormonal that they all affected regardless of the emphasis. The ultimate connection is connecting training to the competition. Never lose sight of the fact that the goal of training is to prepare the athlete for competition, therefore all training must connect to competition by thoroughly preparing the athlete for the demands of the competition.

Practice

I have become obsessed with practice. What is a good practice? What is an ineffective practice? What are you doing in practice? Do you know why? How much of your practice is composed of unrelated drills? How do you teach new skill? Are the practices appropriate for the people you are coaching? Are you paying homage to the gods of your sport? Obviously, the cornerstone for effective athlete development is practice, but too often it is just about putting in the time. Now with the 10,000 hour figure looming out there everyone is even more concerned with putting in the time. It is not the time in practice, it what you put into the time. Practice must be deliberate, focused and connected to the desired end result – performance in competition.

Think for Yourself

Thirty years ago, when everyone was wearing polo shirts with an alligator on them I found a company that sold shirts with a rat on them. Not to be contrarian, but to make a statement. Be independent, think for yourself, analyze. Innovate don’t imitate. Get beyond peer-reviewed research and evidence based practice and find out what works. Open your eyes and see what is happening right in front to you every day at training. Follow your instincts; chances are that if it looks artificial and segmented then it is artificial and segmented. Always remember that the competitive environment is not controlled and sterile it is wild and chaotic, so prepare the way you want to compete. If you do what you have always done you will get what have always got. Not good English but words to guide your training.

One Great Workout

How many of you walk into the gym, out to the field or onto pool deck with today’s workout as an end unto itself, looking for that one great workout that will make a difference? Think again - today’s workout must fit in the context of the whole training plan. Think of it as one pixel in a mega pixel picture. For the picture to be clear, in focus and complete it will take all pixels fitting together to create a unified whole.  Great performance in competition is set up by consistent work in training, not one great workout. Today’s workout is important but remember it is one of many in pursuit of a goal.

The Spotlight

“Backstage not onstage” Support and prepare the athlete then step aside and let them perform. The spotlight should be focused on the athlete in the performance arena. Support staff and that includes sport scientists, strength coaches, and medical staff should be anonymous. If they are up front and the center of attention then something is seriously wrong. We all need to do our job behind the scenes and be thankful that we can work with athletes to help make them better.

Fundamental Training Principles – A Review

As a follow-up to my previous post these are the principles upon which a sound program is based. You MUST observe these principles to achieve optimum adaptation to training. They are very basic and fundamental.

Principle of Progression - This is the most often violated principle. Progression in its simplest form moves from simple to complex, easy to hard and general work to specific work. These simple steps give way to complex interactions. All training variables do not progress at the same rate nor do all individuals progress at the same rate.

To insure proper progression, we must clearly define each step. Begin by articulating specific goals and objectives for each step. Then develop evaluative criteria to assess the achievement of each of the goals and objectives of each step. I would go so far as to say that at certain levels of development it should be necessary to show mastery before moving on to the next step. This is especially true in refinement of technical development.

Progression is not linear. We need to begin with a clear picture of what we want the athlete to achieve or look like at the end of a training program as a goal. But we must remember that progression toward that ultimate objective will proceed in a staircase like progression. Constant progress should be made toward the goal, but some of the incremental steps along the way will be smaller than others. It also helps to think of progression as fitting pieces together.

The Principle of Accumulation - Adaptation to the stress of training is a cumulative process. You do not do a workout and gain an immediate positive training response, unless it is a relatively small technical adjustment. Often you will see the true results of a significant investment in training up to a year after the initial training stimulus.

The effect of training accumulates over time, provided training has been consistent and the athlete has been able to stay injury free. Adaptation to different training demands occurs at different rates and the ultimate training adaptation is the synergistic accumulation of the collective training responses. Remember one workout cannot make an athlete, but one workout can break an athlete. Be patient, wait for training to take effect.

Principle of Variation - The variables of training volume, intensity, frequency and exercise selection must be constantly manipulated in a systematic manner. Because the body adapts to training stress so quickly it is important to vary training to insure continued adaptation. This variation should not be random, but systematically planned to measure the effect of the variation. If training is not varied the body will adapt quite quickly and the training effect will be dulled. If no variation is incorporated there is a significant risk of staleness and eventual overtraining.

Principle of Context - Before we incorporate something into training we need to see where it fits into the context of what is already being done and what is planned. Perhaps the biggest violation of the principle of context is to take one component, for example speed or strength and train those to the exclusion of all other physical qualities. This is fundamentally unsound. It is possible to design program where a component is emphasized for a phase, but it should be kept in proportion to the other components and put into the context of the whole training plan.

Principle of Overload - For the athlete to progress they must be subjected to a load at a level beyond which they have adapted. Overload is achieved through manipulation of the training variables of volume, the amount of work, intensity, the quality of the work, and frequency of application of the training stimulus. Because there is a reciprocal relationship between volume and intensity it is important to be careful about increasing both at the same time. It is easy to fall into a trap of overload through volume. This happens because it is easier to quantify training in terms of volume, more runs, more jumps or more throws. This quickly becomes a trap because you cannot keep adding volume without quickly reaching the point of diminishing returns. It also happens because at the start of the athletic development process volume loading results in rapid and sometime spectacular gains. Remember that volume is not a biomotor quality. As training age advances that paradigm must shift and the overload must come more from intensity.

Principle of Recoverability - The ability to recover both short term and long term from a workload is crucial to positive adaptation to the training stimulus. If the athlete is unable to recover from the training stress then it is not an appropriate load. Different athletes have different abilities to recover. No two athletes are the same in ability, nor are they the same in the ability to recover. Of all the training principles, this is the one that is most easy to overlook because it is so easy to get caught up in the work and ignore the ability to recover.

Following the Flock

You can follow the flock and do the latest Topsy Turvy method that promises to raise GH levels if hold your breath for a minute after each set or the Dipsy Do training that uses repeat 50 meter sprints to train for a marathon. Stop and think - if you follow the flock you will step in sheep shit and that is what a lot of this crazy stuff is. The bottom line is quite clear if they do not follow sound training methods and address the basics then they are not sound training programs There are no secret training methods, no shortcuts, no magic. You must follow sound training principles, emphasize the basics and be consistent.

Notes (Advice) to My Younger Self

This post is a result of reflections on turning seventy and as I continue the 49th year of my coaching journey. These are thoughts on what I could have done better or at least differently. They are the results of questions in the process of mentoring other coaches and raising my children. The questions usually are: What have you learned? What would do differently? Hopefully this will stimulate you to think and learn from my mistakes, missteps and an occasional success.

Slow down you move too fast

You don’t always have to be right

Knock the chip off your shoulder

No one knows everything

It is not necessary to get in the last word

Smile

Listen more, talk less

You don’t have to be the savior

It’s OK to make money, many people do not value free

Earn the right, pay your dues

Be here now – in the moment

The big time is not the place to be

It’s not a perfect world, deal with it

Passion needs to be handled carefully. It is like a high-octane fuel, very volatile and explosive.

Stand up for what you believe in

Beware of false prophets bearing gifts

Tune out the naysayers

Forgive but don’t forget

Be a participant not a recipient

Be true to yourself

Don’t confuse the messenger with the message

Be the best YOU, you can be